ometendoОжирение и метаболизмObesity and metabolism2071-87132306-5524Endocrinology Research Centre10.14341/omet12901ometendo-12901Research ArticleОБЗОРЫREVIEWSВозможности аутотрансплантации фекальной микробиоты у пациентов с ожирением и сахарным диабетомPossibilities of Autologous Fecal Microbiota Transplantation in patients with obesity and diabetes mellitushttps://orcid.org/0000-0002-8694-2474ГусейноваР. М.GuseinovaR. M.

Гусейнова Раисат Магомедкамиловна

117036, Москва, ул. Дмитрия Ульянова, д. 11

eLibrary SPIN: 9719-3850

Raisat M. Guseinova, MD

11, Dm. Ulyanova street, 117036 Moscow

eLibrary SPIN: 9719-3850

rasgus-9@mail.ruhttps://orcid.org/0000-0001-6612-6851ШестаковаЕ. А.ShestakovaE. A.

Шестакова Екатерина Алексеевна, доктор медицинских наук 

Москва

eLibrary SPIN: 1124-7600

Ekaterina A. Shestakova, MD, PhD

Moscow

eLibrary SPIN: 1124-7600

katiashestakova@mail.ruНациональный медицинский исследовательский центр эндокринологииРоссияEndocrinology Research CentreRussian Federation202206122022193300305Copyright © Гусейнова Р.М., Шестакова Е.А., 20232023Гусейнова Р.М., Шестакова Е.А.Guseinova R.M., Shestakova E.A.Данная работа распространяется под лицензией Creative Commons Attribution 4.0.This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.https://www.omet-endojournals.ru/jour/article/view/12901

Ожирение и сахарный диабет 2 типа (СД2) — ключевые проблемы здравоохранения во всем мире. По данным ретроспективных исследований, распространенность ожирения с 1980 г. удвоилась более чем в 70 странах, а вместе с ним и развитие атеросклеротических сердечно-сосудистых заболеваний, неалкогольной жировой болезни печени и их осложнений. Существует множество медикаментозных способов лечения СД2, однако добиться стойкого клинически значимого эффекта на долгосрочной основе довольно сложно. Наличие у пациента обоих заболеваний создает трудности как для оптимизации углеводного обмена, так и для достижения нормальной массы тела. Многие сахароснижающие препараты приводят к увеличению массы тела, что, в свою очередь, способствует нарастанию инсулинорезистентности (ИР) и требует дальнейшей интенсификации терапии.

В последние годы появляется все больше данных о взаимосвязи между кишечной микробиотой (КМ), ожирением и СД2. В мире наблюдается неуклонный рост интереса к такой медицинской технологии, как трансплантации фекальной микробиоты (ТФМ). Поскольку имеются данные о связи КМ с развитием ИР и СД2, возможность применения ТФМ потенциально может являться одним из новых методов лечения.

В данном обзоре рассмотрено современное состояние проблемы, обсуждена возможность изменения КМ как терапевтической стратегии при ожирении и СД2 с акцентом на аутотрансплантацию фекальной микробиоты.

Obesity and type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) are major problems for public health all over the world. According to retrospective research, the prevalence of obesity has doubled in more than 70 countries since 1980, as well as the prevalence of obesity complications (atherosclerotic cardiovascular diseases, nonalcoholic fatty liver disease and their complications. There are many drug therapies for T2DM, but it is difficult to achieve a stable, clinically relevant effect on a long-term basis. The fact that a patient has both conditions makes it difficult to optimize carbohydrate metabolism and to achieve normal body weight. Many antidiabetic drugs cause weight again, which, in turn, contributes to the growth of insulin resistance (IR) and requires further intensification of therapy.

In the last few years, there is a growing evidence of the relationship between the gut microbiota (GM), obesity and T2DM. There has been a steady growth of interest in such medical technology as fecal microbiota transplantation (FMT) in the world. Since there is data on the association of the gut microbiota (GM) with the development of IR and T2DM, the possibility of FMT can potentially be one of the new methods of treatment. This review presents the current state of the problem and discusses the possibility of modifying GM as a therapeutic strategy in obesity and T2DM with an accent on autologous fecal microbiota transplantation.

кишечная микробиотаожирениесахарный диабет 2 типааутотрансплантация фекальной микробиотыfecal microbiotaobesitydiabetes mellitus type 2autologous fecal microbiota transplantationРабота выполнена за счет средств гранта Министерства науки и высшего образования РФ (соглашение N 075-15-2022-310)ReferencesFung TC, Olson CA, Hsiao EY. Interactions between the microbiota, immune and nervous systems in health and disease. Nat Neurosci. 2017;20(2):145-155. doi: https://doi.org/10.1038/nn.4476NIH HMP Working Group, Peterson J, Garges S, et al. The NIH Human Microbiome Project. Genome Res. 2009; 19(12):2317-2323. doi:10.1101/gr.096651.109Yu F, Han W, Zhan G, et al. Abnormal gut microbiota composition contributes to the development of type 2 diabetes mellitus in db/db mice. Aging (Albany NY). 2019;11(22):10454-10467. doi: https://doi.org/10.18632/aging.102469Sonnenburg JL, Bäckhed F. Diet-microbiota interactions as moderators of human metabolism. Nature. 2016;535(7610):56-64. doi:10.1038/nature18846Yatsunenko T, Rey FE, Manary MJ, et al. Human gut microbiome viewed across age and geography. Nature. 2012;486(7402):222-227. doi: https://doi.org/10.1038/nature11053Bäckhed F, Ding H, Wang T, et al. The gut microbiota as an environmental factor that regulates fat storage. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2004;101(44):15718-15723. doi:10.1073/pnas.0407076101Ussar S, Griffin NW, Bezy O, et al. Interactions between gut microbiota, host genetics and diet modulate the predisposition to obesity and metabolic syndrome [published correction appears in Cell Metab. 2016;23(3):564-566]. Cell Metab. 2015;22(3):516-530. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cmet.2015.07.007Schroeder BO, Bäckhed F. Signals from the gut microbiota to distant organs in physiology and disease. Nat Med. 2016;22(10):1079-1089. doi:10.1038/nm.4185Goodrich JK, Waters JL, Poole AC, et al. Human genetics shape the gut microbiome. Cell. 2014;159(4):789-799. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cell.2014.09.053Liu R, Hong J, Xu X, et al. Gut microbiome and serum metabolome alterations in obesity and after weight-loss intervention. Nat Med. 2017;23(7):859-868. doi:10.1038/nm.4358Wu GD, Chen J, Hoffmann C, et al. Linking long-term dietary patterns with gut microbial enterotypes. Science. 2011;334(6052):105-108. doi: https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1208344Sharma S, Tripathi P. Gut microbiome and type 2 diabetes: where we are and where to go? J Nutr Biochem. 2019;63(2):101-108. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jnutbio.2018.10.003Forslund K, Hildebrand F, Nielsen T, et al. Disentangling type 2 diabetes and metformin treatment signatures in the human gut microbiota [published correction appears in Nature. 2017;545(7652):116]. Nature. 2015;528(7581):262-266. doi: https://doi.org/10.1038/nature15766Kang D-W, Adams JB, Coleman DM, et al. Long-term benefit of Microbiota Transfer Therapy on autism symptoms and gut microbiota. Sci Rep. 2019;9(1):5821. doi: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-019-42183-0Falony G, Joossens M, Vieira-Silva S, et al. Population-level analysis of gut microbiome variation. Science. 2016;352(6285):560-564. doi: https://doi.org/10.1126/science.aad3503Fung TC, Olson CA, Hsiao EY. Interactions between the microbiota, immune and nervous systems in health and disease. Nat Neurosci. 2017;20(2):145-155. doi: https://doi.org/10.1038/nn.4476Charbonneau MR, Blanton LV, DiGiulio DB, et al. A microbial perspective of human developmental biology. Nature. 2016;535(7610):48-55. doi:10.1038/nature18845Yu F, Han W, Zhan G, et al. Abnormal gut microbiota composition contributes to the development of type 2 diabetes mellitus in db/db mice. Aging (Albany NY). 2019;11(22):10454-10467. doi: https://doi.org/10.18632/aging.102469Turnbaugh PJ, Ley RE, Mahowald MA, et al. An obesityassociated gut microbiome with increased capacity for energy harvest. Nature. 2006;444(7122):1027-1031. doi: https://doi.org/10.1038/nature05414Yatsunenko T, Rey FE, Manary MJ, et al. Human gut microbiome viewed across age and geography. Nature. 2012;486(7402):222-227. Published 2012 May 9. doi:10.1038/nature11053Mackowiak PA. Recycling metchnikoff: probiotics, the intestinal microbiome and the quest for long life. Front Public Heal. 2013;1(12):2317-2323. doi: https://doi.org/10.3389/fpubh.2013.00052Ussar S, Griffin NW, Bezy O, et al. Interactions between Gut Microbiota, Host Genetics and Diet Modulate the Predisposition to Obesity and Metabolic Syndrome [published correction appears in Cell Metab. 2016 Mar 8;23(3):564-6]. Cell Metab. 2015;22(3):516-530. doi:10.1016/j.cmet.2015.07.007Grigoroff S. Revue Medicale de la Suisse Romande. Geneve: Georg&G; 1905.Goodrich JK, Waters JL, Poole AC, et al. Human genetics shape the gut microbiome. Cell. 2014;159(4):789-799. doi:10.1016/j.cell.2014.09.053Scott KP, Antoine J-M, Midtvedt T, van Hemert S. Manipulating the gut microbiota to maintain health and treat disease. Microb Ecol Heal Dis. 2015;26(2):145-155. doi: https://doi.org/10.3402/mehd.v26.25877Wu GD, Chen J, Hoffmann C, et al. Linking long-term dietary patterns with gut microbial enterotypes. Science. 2011;334(6052):105-108. doi:10.1126/science.1208344Youngster I, Russell GH, Pindar C, et al. Oral, capsulized, frozen fecal microbiota transplantation for relapsing Clostridium difficile infection [published correction appears in JAMA. 2015;313(7):729]. JAMA. 2014;312(17):1772-1778. doi: https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.2014.13875Forslund K, Hildebrand F, Nielsen T, et al. Disentangling type 2 diabetes and metformin treatment signatures in the human gut microbiota [published correction appears in Nature. 2017 May 3;545(7652):116]. Nature. 2015;528(7581):262-266. doi:10.1038/nature15766McCune VL, Struthers JK, Hawkey PM. Faecal transplantation for the treatment of Clostridium difficile infection: a review. Int J Antimicrob Agents. 2014;43(3):201-206. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijantimicag.2013.10.009Falony G, Joossens M, Vieira-Silva S, et al. Population-level analysis of gut microbiome variation. Science. 2016;352(6285):560-564. doi:10.1126/science.aad3503Austin M, Mellow M, Tierney WM. Fecal Microbiota Transplantation in the Treatment of Clostridium difficile Infections. Am J Med. 2014;127(6):479-483. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.amjmed.2014.02.017Charbonneau MR, Blanton LV, DiGiulio DB, et al. A microbial perspective of human developmental biology. Nature. 2016;535(7610):48-55. doi:10.1038/nature18845Aron-Wisnewsky J, Clément K, Nieuwdorp M. Fecal Microbiota Transplantation: a Future Therapeutic Option for Obesity/Diabetes? Curr Diab Rep. 2019;19(8):51. doi: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11892-019-1180-zTurnbaugh PJ, Ley RE, Mahowald MA, Magrini V, Mardis ER, Gordon JI. An obesity-associated gut microbiome with increased capacity for energy harvest. Nature. 2006;444(7122):1027-1031. doi:10.1038/nature05414Kootte RS, Levin E, Salojärvi J, et al. Improvement of insulin sensitivity after lean donor feces in metabolic syndrome is driven by baseline intestinal microbiota composition. Cell Metab. 2017;26(4):611-619.e6. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cmet.2017.09.008Mackowiak PA. Recycling metchnikoff: probiotics, the intestinal microbiome and the quest for long life. Front Public Health. 2013;1:52. Published 2013 Nov 13. doi:10.3389/fpubh.2013.00052Halkjær SI, Christensen AH, Lo BZS, et al. Faecal microbiota transplantation alters gut microbiota in patients with irritable bowel syndrome: results from a randomised, double-blind placebo-controlled study. Gut. 2018;67(12):2107-2115. doi: https://doi.org/10.1136/gutjnl-2018-316434Grigoroff S. Revue Medicale de la Suisse Romande. Geneve: Georg&G; 1905Ng SC, Xu Z, Mak JWY, et al. Microbiota engraftment after faecal microbiota transplantation in obese subjects with type 2 diabetes: a 24-week, double-blind, randomised controlled trial. Gut. 2022;71(4):716-723. doi: https://doi.org/10.1136/gutjnl-2020-323617Scott KP, Antoine J-M, Midtvedt T, van Hemert S. Manipulating the gut microbiota to maintain health and treat disease. Microb Ecol Heal Dis. 2015;26(2):145-155. doi: https://doi.org/10.3402/mehd.v26.25877Wang H, Lu Y, Yan Y, et al. Promising treatment for type 2 diabetes: fecal microbiota transplantation reverses insulin resistance and impaired islets. Front Cell Infect Microbiol. 2020;(9):455. doi: https://doi.org/10.3389/fcimb.2019.00455Youngster I, Russell GH, Pindar C, Ziv-Baran T, Sauk J, Hohmann EL. Oral, capsulized, frozen fecal microbiota transplantation for relapsing Clostridium difficile infection [published correction appears in JAMA. 2015 Feb 17;313(7):729]. JAMA. 2014;312(17):1772-1778. doi:10.1001/jama.2014.13875Bäckhed F, Ding H, Wang T, et al. The gut microbiota as an environmental factor that regulates fat storage. Proc Natl Acad Sci. 2004;101(44):15718-15723. doi: https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0407076101McCune VL, Struthers JK, Hawkey PM. Faecal transplantation for the treatment of Clostridium difficile infection: a review. Int J Antimicrob Agents. 2014;43(3):201-206. doi:10.1016/j.ijantimicag.2013.10.009Khan MT, Nieuwdorp M, Bäckhed F. Microbial modulation of insulin sensitivity. Cell Metab. 2014;20(5):753-760. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cmet.2014.07.006Austin M., Mellow M., Tierney W. M. Fecal microbiota transplantation in the treatment of Clostridium difficile infections //The American journal of medicine. – 2014. – Т. 127. – №. 6. – С. 479-483.Rabot S, Membrez M, Bruneau A, et al. Germ-free C57BL/6J mice are resistant to high-fat-diet-induced insulin resistance and have altered cholesterol metabolism. FASEB J. 2010;24(12):4948-4959. doi: https://doi.org/10.1096/fj.10-164921Aron-Wisnewsky J, Clément K, Nieuwdorp M. Fecal Microbiota Transplantation: a Future Therapeutic Option for Obesity/Diabetes? Curr Diab Rep. 2019;19(8):51. doi: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11892-019-1180-zTurnbaugh PJ, Ley RE, Mahowald MA, et al. An obesityassociated gut microbiome with increased capacity for energy harvest. Nature. 2006;444(7122):1027-1031. doi: https://doi.org/10.1038/nature05414Kootte RS, Levin E, Salojärvi J, et al. Improvement of Insulin Sensitivity after Lean Donor Feces in Metabolic Syndrome Is Driven by Baseline Intestinal Microbiota Composition. Cell Metab. 2017;26(4):611-619.e6. doi:10.1016/j.cmet.2017.09.008Yu EW, Gao L, Stastka P, et al. Fecal microbiota transplantation for the improvement of metabolism in obesity: The FMT-TRIM doubleblind placebo-controlled pilot trial. PLOS Med. 2020;17(3):e1003051. doi: https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pmed.1003051Halkjær SI, Christensen AH, Lo BZS, et al. Faecal microbiota transplantation alters gut microbiota in patients with irritable bowel syndrome: results from a randomised, double-blind placebo-controlled study. Gut. 2018;67(12):2107-2115. doi:10.1136/gutjnl-2018-316434Vrieze A, Van Nood E, Holleman F, et al. Transfer of intestinal microbiota from lean donors increases insulin sensitivity in individuals with metabolic syndrome [published correction appears in Gastroenterology. 2013;144(1):250]. Gastroenterology. 2012;143(4):913-916.e7. doi: https://doi.org/10.1053/j.gastro.2012.06.031Ng SC, Xu Z, Mak JWY, et al. Microbiota engraftment after faecal microbiota transplantation in obese subjects with type 2 diabetes: a 24-week, double-blind, randomised controlled trial. Gut. 2022;71(4):716-723. doi:10.1136/gutjnl-2020-323617Kassam Z, Lee CH, Yuan Y, Hunt RH. Fecal microbiota transplantation for Clostridium difficile infection: systematic review and meta-analysis. Am J Gastroenterol. 2013;108(4):500-508. doi: https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1038/ajg.2013.59Wang H, Lu Y, Yan Y, et al. Promising Treatment for Type 2 Diabetes: Fecal Microbiota Transplantation Reverses Insulin Resistance and Impaired Islets. Front Cell Infect Microbiol. 2020;9:455. Published 2020 Jan 17. doi:10.3389/fcimb.2019.00455Bakken JS, Borody T, Brandt LJ, et al. Treating Clostridium difficile infection with fecal microbiota transplantation. Clin Gastroenterol Hepatol. 2011;9(12):1044-1049. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cgh.2011.08.014F. Backhed, H. Ding, T. Wang, L.V. Hooper, G.Y. Koh, A. Nagy, et al. The gut microbiota as an environmental factor that regulates fat storage Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A, 101 (2004), pp. 15718-15723 https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0407076101van Nood E, Vrieze A, Nieuwdorp M, et al. Duodenal infusion of donor feces for recurrent Clostridium difficile. N Engl J Med. 2013;368(5):407-415. doi: https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa1205037M.T. Khan, M. Nieuwdorp, F. Backhed Microbial modulation of insulin sensitivity Cell Metab, 20 (2014), pp. 753-760 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cmet.2014.07.006Youngster I, Sauk J, Pindar C, et al. Fecal microbiota transplant for relapsing Clostridium difficile infection using a frozen inoculum from unrelated donors: a randomized, open-label, controlled pilot study. Clin Infect Dis. 2014;58(11):1515-1522. doi: https://doi.org/10.1093/cid/ciu135S. Rabot, M. Membrez, A. Bruneau, P. Gerard, T.Harach, M. Moser, et al. Germ-free C57BL/6J mice are resistant to high-fat-diet-induced insulin resistance and have altered cholesterol metabolism FASEB J Off Publ Fed Am Soc Exp Biol, 24 (2010), pp. 4948-4959 https://doi.org/10.1096/fj.10-164921Gough E, Shaikh H, Manges AR. Systematic review of intestinal microbiota transplantation (fecal bacteriotherapy) for recurrent Clostridium difficile infection. Clin Infect Dis. 2011;53(10):994-1002. doi: https://doi.org/10.1093/cid/cir632P.J. Turnbaugh, R.E. Ley, M.A. Mahowald, V. Magrini, E.R. Mardis, J.I. Gordon An obesity-associated gut microbiome with increased capacity for energy harvest Nature, 444 (2006), pp. 1027-1031 https://doi.org/10.1038/nature05414Bakken JS, Borody T, Brandt LJ, et al. Treating Clostridium difficile Infection With Fecal Microbiota Transplantation. Clin Gastroenterol Hepatol. 2011;9(12):1044-1049. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cgh.2011.08.014Yu EW, Gao L, Stastka P, et al. Fecal microbiota transplantation for the improvement of metabolism in obesity: The FMT-TRIM double-blind placebocontrolled pilot trial. PLOS Med. 2020;17(3):e1003051. doi: https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pmed.1003051Cammarota G, Ianiro G, Kelly CR, et al. International consensus conference on stool banking for faecal microbiota transplantation in clinical practice. Gut. 2019;68(12):2111-2121. doi: https://doi.org/10.1136/gutjnl-2019-319548Vrieze A, Van Nood E, Holleman F, et al. Transfer of intestinal microbiota from lean donors increases insulin sensitivity in individuals with metabolic syndrome [published correction appears in Gastroenterology. 2013 Jan;144(1):250]. Gastroenterology. 2012;143(4):913-6.e7. doi:10.1053/j.gastro.2012.06.031Terveer EM, van Beurden YH, Goorhuis A, et al. How to: Establish and run a stool bank. Clin Microbiol Inf. 2017;23(12):924-930. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cmi.2017.05.015Kassam Z, Lee CH, Yuan Y, Hunt RH. Fecal microbiota transplantation for Clostridium difficile infection: systematic review and meta-analysis. Am J Gastroenterol. 2013;108(4):500-508. doi:10.1038/ajg.2013.59Cammarota G, Ianiro G, Tilg H, et al. European consensus conference on faecal microbiota transplantation in clinical practice. Gut. 2017;66(4):569-80. doi: https://doi.org/10.1136/gutjnl-2016-313017Bakken JS, Borody T, Brandt LJ, et al. Treating Clostridium difficile infection with fecal microbiota transplantation. Clin Gastroenterol Hepatol. 2011;9(12):1044-1049. doi:10.1016/j.cgh.2011.08.014Mullish BH, Quraishi MN, Segal JP, et al. The use of faecal microbiota transplant as treatment for recurrent or refractory Clostridium difficile infection and other potential indications: joint British Society of Gastroenterology (BSG) and Healthcare Infection Society (HIS) guidelines. Gut. 2018;67(11):1920-1941. doi: https://doi.org/10.1136/gutjnl-2018-316818van Nood E, Vrieze A, Nieuwdorp M, et al. Duodenal infusion of donor feces for recurrent Clostridium difficile. N Engl J Med. 2013;368(5):407-415. doi:10.1056/NEJMoa1205037Bäckhed F, Manchester JK, Semenkovich CF, Gordon JI. Mechanisms underlying the resistance to diet-induced obesity in germ-free mice. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2007;104(3):979-984. doi: https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0605374104Youngster I, Sauk J, Pindar C, et al. Fecal microbiota transplant for relapsing Clostridium difficile infection using a frozen inoculum from unrelated donors: a randomized, open-label, controlled pilot study. Clin Infect Dis. 2014;58(11):1515-1522. doi:10.1093/cid/ciu135Xiao L, Yan J, Yang T, et al. Fecal Microbiome Transplantation from Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder Modulates Tryptophan and Serotonergic Synapse Metabolism and Induces Altered Behaviors in Germ-Free Mice. mSystems. 2021;6(2):1920-1941. doi: https://doi.org/10.1128/mSystems.01343-20Gough E, Shaikh H, Manges AR. Systematic review of intestinal microbiota transplantation (fecal bacteriotherapy) for recurrent Clostridium difficile infection. Clin Infect Dis. 2011;53(10):994-1002. doi:10.1093/cid/cir632Pu Y, Tan Y, Qu Y, et al. A role of the subdiaphragmatic vagus nerve in depression-like phenotypes in mice after fecal microbiota transplantation from Chrna7 knock-out mice with depressionlike phenotypes. Brain Behav Immun. 2021;(94):318-326. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bbi.2020.12.032Bakken JS, Borody T, Brandt LJ, Brill JV, Demarco DC, Franzos MA, Kelly C, Khoruts A, Louie T, Martinelli LP, et al.. Treating Clostridium difficile infection with fecal microbiota transplantation. Clin Gastroenterol Hepatol [Internet] 2011; 9:1044-9. Available from: http://dx.doi.org/ 10.1016/j.cgh.2011.08.014; PMID:21871249; http://dx.doi.org/ 10.1016/j.cgh.2011.08.014 [PMC free article] [PubMed] [CrossRef] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]Available from: https://www.fda.gov/safety/medical-product-safetyinformation/fecal-microbiota-transplantation-safety-alert-riskserious-adverse-events-likely-due-transmission. Accessed 06.11.2022.Cammarota G, Ianiro G, Kelly CR, et al. International consensus conference on stool banking for faecal microbiota transplantation in clinical practice. Gut. 2019;68(12):2111-2121. doi:10.1136/gutjnl-2019-319548Janket SJ, Ackerson LK, Diamandis EP. Drug-resistant bacteremia after fecal microbiota transplant. N Engl J Med. 2020;382(20):1960. doi: https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMc2002496Terveer EM, van Beurden YH, Goorhuis A, et al. How to: Establish and run a stool bank. Clin Microbiol Inf. 2017;23(12):924-30. doi: 10.1016/j.cmi.2017.05.015Kassam Z, Dubois NE, Ling K, et al. 512 — Donor health screening for fecal microbiota transplantation: prospective evaluation of 15,317 candidate donors. Gastroenterology. 2019;156(6):S100-S101. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/S0016-5085(19)37042-8Cammarota G, Ianiro G, Tilg H, et al. European consensus conference on faecal microbiota transplantation in clinical practice. Gut. 2017;66(4):569-80. doi: 10.1136/gutjnl-2016-313017Paramsothy S, Borody TJ, Lin E, et al. Donor recruitment for fecal microbiota transplantation. Inflamm Bowel Dis. 2015;21(7):1600-1606. doi: https://doi.org/10.1097/MIB.0000000000000405Mullish BH, Quraishi M, Segal J, et al. The use of faecal microbiota transplant as treatment for recurrent or refractory Clostridium difficile infection and other potential indications: joint British Society of Gastroenterology (BSG) and Healthcare Infection Society (HIS) guidelines. Gut. 2018;0:1-22. doi: 10.1136/gutjnl-2018-316818Pérez-Matute P, Íñiguez M, de Toro M, et al. Autologous fecal transplantation from a lean state potentiates caloric restriction effects on body weight and adiposity in obese mice. Sci Rep. 2020;10(1):9388. doi: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-020-64961-xBäckhed F, Manchester JK, Semenkovich CF, Gordon JI. Mechanisms underlying the resistance to diet-induced obesity in germ-free mice. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2007;104(3):979-984. doi:10.1073/pnas.0605374104Lundberg R, Toft MF, August B, et al. Antibiotic-treated versus germ-free rodents for microbiota transplantation studies [published correction appears in doi: https://doi.org/10.1038/srep05922]. Gut Microbes. 2016;7(1):68-74. doi: https://doi.org/10.1080/19490976.2015.1127463Xiao L, Yan J, Yang T, et al. Fecal Microbiome Transplantation from Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder Modulates Tryptophan and Serotonergic Synapse Metabolism and Induces Altered Behaviors in Germ-Free Mice. mSystems. 2021;6(2):e01343-20. Published 2021 Apr 6. doi:10.1128/mSystems.01343-20Li SS, Zhu A, Benes V, et al. Durable coexistence of donor and recipient strains after fecal microbiota transplantation. Science. 2016;352(6285):586-589. doi: https://doi.org/10.1126/science.aad8852Pu Y, Tan Y, Qu Y, et al. A role of the subdiaphragmatic vagus nerve in depression-like phenotypes in mice after fecal microbiota transplantation from Chrna7 knock-out mice with depression-like phenotypes. Brain Behav Immun. 2021;94:318-326. doi:10.1016/j.bbi.2020.12.032Smillie CS, Sauk J, Gevers D, et al. Strain Tracking Reveals the Determinants of Bacterial Engraftment in the Human Gut Following Fecal Microbiota Transplantation. Cell Host Microbe. 2018;23(2):229-240.e5. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chom.2018.01.003https://www.fda.gov/safety/medical-product-safety-information/fecal-microbiota-transplantation-safety-alert-risk-serious-adverse-events-likely-due-transmissionde Groot P, Nikolic T, Pellegrini S, et al. Faecal microbiota transplantation halts progression of human new-onset type 1 diabetes in a randomised controlled trial. Gut. 2021;70(1):92-105. doi: https://doi.org/10.1136/gutjnl-2020-322630Janket SJ, Ackerson LK, Diamandis EP. Drug-Resistant Bacteremia after Fecal Microbiota Transplant. N Engl J Med. 2020;382(20):1960. doi:10.1056/NEJMc2002496Rinott E, Youngster I, Yaskolka Meir A, et al. Effects of DietModulated Autologous Fecal Microbiota Transplantation on Weight Regain. Gastroenterology. 2021;160(1):158-173.e10. doi: https://doi.org/10.1053/j.gastro.2020.08.041Kassam Z, Dubois NE, Ling K. 512 – donor health screening for fecal microbiota transplantation: prospective evaluation of 15,317 candidate donors. Gastroenterology. 2019;156:100-1. doi: 10.1016/S0016- 5085(19)37042-8 45.Mocanu V, Zhang Z, Deehan EC, et al. Fecal microbial transplantation and fiber supplementation in patients with severe obesity and metabolic syndrome: a randomized double-blind, placebocontrolled phase 2 trial. Nature Medicine. 2021;27(7):1272-1279. doi: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41591-021-01399-2Paramsothy S, Borody TJ, Lin E, et al. Donor Recruitment for Fecal Microbiota Transplantation. Inflamm Bowel Dis. 2015;21(7):1600-1606. doi:10.1097/MIB.0000000000000405Rinott E, Youngster I, Meir AY, et al. Autologous fecal microbiota transplantation can retain the metabolic achievements of dietary interventions. Eur J Intern Med. 2021;(92):17-23. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejim.2021.03.038Pérez-Matute P, Íñiguez M, de Toro M, Recio-Fernández E, Oteo JA. Autologous fecal transplantation from a lean state potentiates caloric restriction effects on body weight and adiposity in obese mice. Sci Rep. 2020;10(1):9388. Published 2020 Jun 10. doi:10.1038/s41598-020-64961-xLundberg R, Toft MF, August B, Hansen AK, Hansen CH. Antibiotic-treated versus germ-free rodents for microbiota transplantation studies [published correction appears in doi: 10.1038/srep05922]. Gut Microbes. 2016;7(1):68-74. doi:10.1080/19490976.2015.1127463Lundberg R, Toft MF, August B, Hansen AK, Hansen CH. Antibiotic-treated versus germ-free rodents for microbiota transplantation studies [published correction appears in doi: 10.1038/srep05922]. Gut Microbes. 2016;7(1):68-74. doi:10.1080/19490976.2015.1127463Li SS, Zhu A, Benes V, et al. Durable coexistence of donor and recipient strains after fecal microbiota transplantation. Science. 2016;352(6285):586-589. doi:10.1126/science.aad8852Li SS, Zhu A, Benes V, et al. Durable coexistence of donor and recipient strains after fecal microbiota transplantation. Science. 2016;352(6285):586-589. doi:10.1126/science.aad8852Smillie CS, Sauk J, Gevers D, et al. Strain Tracking Reveals the Determinants of Bacterial Engraftment in the Human Gut Following Fecal Microbiota Transplantation. Cell Host Microbe. 2018;23(2):229-240.e5. doi:10.1016/j.chom.2018.01.003Smillie CS, Sauk J, Gevers D, et al. Strain Tracking Reveals the Determinants of Bacterial Engraftment in the Human Gut Following Fecal Microbiota Transplantation. Cell Host Microbe. 2018;23(2):229-240.e5. doi:10.1016/j.chom.2018.01.003de Groot P, Nikolic T, Pellegrini S, et al. Faecal microbiota transplantation halts progression of human new-onset type 1 diabetes in a randomised controlled trial. Gut 2020:gutjnl-2020-322630de Groot P, Nikolic T, Pellegrini S, et al. Faecal microbiota transplantation halts progression of human new-onset type 1 diabetes in a randomised controlled trial. Gut 2020:gutjnl-2020-322630Rinott E, Youngster I, Yaskolka Meir A, et al. Effects of Diet-Modulated Autologous Fecal Microbiota Transplantation on Weight Regain. Gastroenterology. 2021;160(1):158-173.e10. doi:10.1053/j.gastro.2020.08.041Rinott E, Youngster I, Yaskolka Meir A, et al. Effects of Diet-Modulated Autologous Fecal Microbiota Transplantation on Weight Regain. Gastroenterology. 2021;160(1):158-173.e10. doi:10.1053/j.gastro.2020.08.041Mocanu V, Zhang Z, Deehan EC, et al. Fecal microbial transplantation and fiber supplementation in patients with severe obesity and metabolic syndrome: a randomized double-blind, placebo-controlled phase 2 trial. Nature Medicine. 2021 Jul;27(7):1272-1279. DOI: 10.1038/s41591-021-01399-2. PMID: 34226737.Mocanu V, Zhang Z, Deehan EC, et al. Fecal microbial transplantation and fiber supplementation in patients with severe obesity and metabolic syndrome: a randomized double-blind, placebo-controlled phase 2 trial. Nature Medicine. 2021 Jul;27(7):1272-1279. DOI: 10.1038/s41591-021-01399-2. PMID: 34226737.Eiseman B, Silen W, Bascom GS, Kauvar AJ. Fecal enema as an adjunct in the treatment of pseudomembranous enterocolitis. Surgery 1958; (44): 854–9.Eiseman B, Silen W, Bascom GS, Kauvar AJ. Fecal enema as an adjunct in the treatment of pseudomembranous enterocolitis. Surgery 1958; (44): 854–9.Bartlett JG. Clinical practice. Antibiotic-associated diarrhea. N Engl J Med. 2002;346(5):334-339. doi:10.1056/NEJMcp011603Bartlett JG. Clinical practice. Antibiotic-associated diarrhea. N Engl J Med. 2002;346(5):334-339. doi:10.1056/NEJMcp011603Suvorov A, Karaseva A, Kotyleva M, et al. Autoprobiotics as an Approach for Restoration of Personalised Microbiota. Front Microbiol. 2018;9:1869. Published 2018 Sep 12. doi:10.3389/fmicb.2018.01869Suvorov A, Karaseva A, Kotyleva M, et al. Autoprobiotics as an Approach for Restoration of Personalised Microbiota. Front Microbiol. 2018;9:1869. Published 2018 Sep 12. doi:10.3389/fmicb.2018.01869Azad MAK, Sarker M, Li T, Yin J. Probiotic Species in the Modulation of Gut Microbiota: An Overview. Biomed Res Int. 2018;2018(3):1-8. doi:https://doi.org/10.1155/2018/9478630Azad MAK, Sarker M, Li T, Yin J. Probiotic Species in the Modulation of Gut Microbiota: An Overview. Biomed Res Int. 2018;2018(3):1-8. doi:https://doi.org/10.1155/2018/9478630Suez J, Zmora N, Zilberman-Schapira G, et al. Post-Antibiotic Gut Mucosal Microbiome Reconstitution Is Impaired by Probiotics and Improved by Autologous FMT. Cell. 2018;174(6):1406-1423.e16. doi:10.1016/j.cell.2018.08.047Suez J, Zmora N, Zilberman-Schapira G, et al. Post-Antibiotic Gut Mucosal Microbiome Reconstitution Is Impaired by Probiotics and Improved by Autologous FMT. Cell. 2018;174(6):1406-1423.e16. doi:10.1016/j.cell.2018.08.047

The authors declare that there are no conflicts of interest present.